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Afghanistan is a landlocked country, bordering with Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and China. Its population has never been fully counted, but at present it is roughly estimated to be between 15 and 20 million people. The overwhelming majority of its people are Sunni Muslims, although a significant minority between 10 to 20 per cent belong to Shiite and others (1).
Afghanistan played a very important role in Central Asian politics because of its geographic significance. Due to its geo-political location, Central Asia faces a potential security problem vis-a-vis war-torn Afghanistan. The premature exit of the former President of Afghanistan Dr. Najibullah and the power struggle among the various factions of the Resistance Movement have had a domino effect on Central Asian region. Moreover, the common border with the Central Asian States, Afghanistan not only has minorities linked with those states, but has also been economically integrated with them. Almost one fifth of the Afghan population consist of Turkmenians, Uzbeks and Tajiks (2).
The leaders of Central Asian States are very much concerned about the political development in Afghanistan, especially after the control of 95 per cent territory by the Taliban. Does fundamentalist Islam play any significant role in Central Asia? How Afghanistan influences Central Asia? What will be the role of religious fundamentalism in the region? This paper is an attempt to analyze these above-mentioned questions and examine the future of religious fundamentalism in the Central Asian region.
Afghanistan under Taliban
On 26-27 September 1996, Kabul was overrun by an armed force known as "Taliban", a name taken from the persianised plural form of the Arab word "Talib", meaning religious student (3).The leadership of Taliban emerged from the disgruntled young Afghan refugees studying in "Deni Madrassas" (Religious schools) around Quetta and Peshawar in Pakistan. They are mostly Pashtuns and trained by semi literate Mullah (teachers) of Madaris. Therefore, members of Taliban are very hard line orthodox Muslim believers (4).
The advent of war in Afghanistan in the 80s saw Taliban in a battleground in Kandhar. They did not emerge from the Madrassas of Afghanistan, but from those run by the Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Islam, an ultra orthodox religious party headed by Maulana Fazlur Rehman based in Pakistan. These Madrassas offered conservative orthodox religious education to boys from Afghan refugee camps, especially orphans or sons of very poor families. These Madrassas once heavily influenced by the Deobandi School of Thought, which originated in the Dar-ul-Ulam Deoband an institution, established in the Indian town of Deoband in 1876. The Deobandi School preached conservative orthodoxy education and Madrassas under its influence provided the bulk of the Afghan Ulama.
Presently, majority of the Central Council members (Central Shura) has been trained in these Madrassas.Talibans ideology: combination of fundamentalism and totalitarianism. The ideology of Taliban is based on a particular brand of ultra orthodox religion, which commands that politics cannot be separated from religion. It aims to capture and use the State against those who question the legitamacy and authority. In other words, the institutionalization of religion in economics, political and social spheres of the State and Society, which popularly has known as "Theocracy", meaning rule of clergy. Taliban fulfil the requirement of above-mentioned definition. The leader of Taliban, Mullah Mohammad Omar has been given the title of Amir al Momineen (Commander of the Faithful).
As far as term totalitarianism is concerned, it has two factors. It defines, first, ideological superstition as a guiding principle for individual behaviour within Society. Second factor is the use of terror: "if lawfulness is the essence of non-tyrannical government and lawlessness is the essence of tyranny, the terror is the essence of totalitarian domination" (5).
In Afghanistan, Taliban emerged as a totalitarian movement. They have created a climate of fear and uncertainty in Afghan society. Hazaras, in particular, have been the victim of repression under Taliban, since they are tragically exposed both to the Talibans militant anti-shiism, and to persecution on the basis of deep rooted racist hatreds. Moreover, women are particularly harassed and the repression of women has had an intimidating psychological effect on the population as a whole. The Deputy Foreign Minister of Taliban regime, Sher Mohammed Abbas Stanekzai, even admitted in September 1997 that "it is a fact our rulers are obeyed by fear, something he justified by claiming that people are addicted to sin" (6).
The combination of the above mentioned ideological framework of Taliban has been destroying the very fabric of Afghan society.
Religious nationalism and Taliban
In Cold War era, movements for the right of self-determination had played a very vital role in the Third World. It had a nationalistic color and secular orientation. In the post-Cold War era, transformation has taken place, the whole chemistry has changed because of the transformation of secular nationalism into religious nationalism. Taliban are the combination of fundamentalist and religion nationalist force. After 1992, dozens of Madrassas run by the Jamiat-e-Ulama-e-Islam (itself fundamantalist religious Pashtun nationalists) offered education in their institutions.
In Pakistans tribal milieu, there were several major influences of Talibans culture. The primary religious and ideological influence was the Jamiat-e-Ulma-e-Islam itself. Throughout the war in 80s, Jamiat-e-Ulma-e-Islam had built support base amongst the Durrani Pashtuns living in Baluchistan and North Western Frontier Province opening up Madrassas and carrying out relief work in the refugee camps. The Pashtuns of Jamiat-e-Ulma-e-Islam have great deal of commonality with Taliban in many ways. First, both belong to Durrani tribe that straddle the porous border between Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Second, followers of Deobandi School of thought. Third, strong reservations against women. Fourth, strong belief of egalitarianism. Finally, deep rooted antipathy to Shiite Muslims.
Thus, the Talibans interpretation of Islam is very orthodox and conservative in nature, with the touch of pashtunwali- the tribal code of Pashtuns which is primitive in the extreme (7).
Afghanistan: hub of international terrorism
After consolidating its position and power in Afghanistan, Taliban opened the gate for other fundamentalist organizations. The Islamic extremist, from all over the world, including Egypt, Algeria, Palestine and Saudi Arabia, continued to use Afghanistan as a training ground and home base from which to operate. The Taliban, as well as many of the other combatants in the Afghan civil war, facilitated the operation of training and indoctrination facilities for non-Afghans in the territories they controlled. Several Afghan factions also provided logistic support, free passage and sometimes passports to the members of various terrorist organizations. These individuals, in turn, were involved in fighting in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chechneya Tajikistan, Kashmir, the Philippines and part of the Middle Eastern region.
Osama Bin LadenUsama Bin Muhammad Bin Ahmad Bin Laden is one of the significant sponsor of Sunni Islamic terrorist group. He joined the Afghanistan resistance almost immediately after the Soviet intervention in December 1979. He played a significant role in financing, recruiting, transporting, and training Arab nationals who volunteered to fight in Afghanistan. During the war, Bin Laden founded al-Qaida, the base to serve as an operational hub, predominantly for like minded Sunni Islamic extremists. The Saudi government revoked his citizenship in 1994 and his family officially dissociated him. He moved to Sudan in 1991, but due to international pressure, Sudanese government forced him and then he moved to Afghanistan in 1996. In August, 1996, Bin Laden issued a statement, outlying his organizations goals: drive US forces from the Arabian Peninsula, overthrow the Government of Saudi Arabia, liberate Muslim holy sites in Palestine and support Islamic revolutionary groups around the world. To these ends, his organization sent trainers throughout Afghanistan as well as to Tajikistan, Bosnia, Chechenya, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen. He trained fighters from numerous other countries, including the Philippines, Egypt, Libya and Eritrea. Bin Laden has also closely associated with the leaders of several Islamic terrorist groups and probably aided in creating new groups since the mid 80s. He has trained their troops, provided safe heaven and financial support and probably helps them with other organizational matters (8).
Since August 1996, Bin Laden has been very vocal in expressing his approval to use terrorism. He claimed responsibility for trying to bomb the US soldiers in Yemen in late 1992 and for attacks on them in Somalia in 1993. It was reported that his organization aided the Egyptian Gamaat-al-Islamiyya in its assassination attempt on Egyptian President Mubarak in Ethiopia in 1995. In November 1996 he called the 1995 and 1996 bombing against the US military personals in Saudi Arabia "Praiseworthy acts of terrorism" but denied having any personal participation in these bombings. At the same time, he called for further attacks against the US military personnel saying: "If someone can kill an American soldier, it is better than wasting time on other matters" (9).
The conservative fundamentalist elements consider Bin Laden as a hero. But, according to international standard of law and morality, anyone that incites violence against entire people, especially for ideological reasons, is a criminal. On August 23, 1996, Bin Laden signed and issued a Declaration of Jihad (holy war) from Afghanistan, entitled, "Message from Usama Bin Laden to his Muslim Brothers in the whole world and especially in the Arabian Peninsula". He issued a Declaration of Jihad against the Americans who are occupying the land of the Two Holy Mosques (10). In February 1998, Bin Laden and his close associate, Ayman al Zawahiri, endorsed a fatwa (religious command) under the banner of the "International Islamic Front for Jihad on the Jews and crusaders". It further stated that Muslims should kill Americans including civilians anywhere in the world where they can be found. Moreover, on 7 May, 1998, Bin Laden associate Mohammad Atif sent Khaled al Fawwaz a letter discussing the endorsement by Bin Laden of a Fatwa issued by the "Ulama Union of Afghanistan" and declared Jihad against the US and its followers (11). On the hand, the chief to Taliban, Mullah Omar, continuous to provide safe heaven to Bin Laden. The spokesman of Taliban regime continue the disinformation campaign that no one has provided the Taliban with proof of Bin Ladens alleged crimes. Mullah Omar addressed to President Clinton and vowed that Bin Laden had permanent refuge in Afghanistan. "Even if the whole Afghanistan is destroyed, we will never deliver Osama. A Muslim cannot deliver a Muslim to a non-Muslim" (12).
On the contrary, the US administration had extensive evidence against Bin Laden organization Al-Qaida and his collaborators in connection with the August 7, 1998 bombings of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Selaam, Tanzania. These attacks resulted in the deaths of more than 200 people, including 12 American citizens and injuries to more than 4,000 individuals. In retaliation, the US fired cruise missiles at eastern Afghanistan. They were aimed at alleged training camps operated by Bin Ladens Al-Qaida group, but Bin Laden survived from this attack.
Afghanistan and Central Asia
This drastic development which took place in Afghanistan has a direct impact on Central Asian region. The Taliban regime threatens the regional powers and emerges as a destabilizing factor especially in Central Asian States. After the emergence as independent states in 1991, they developed links with Afghanistan within Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), which is a loose regional grouping. But, after the exit of Najibullah and continuing civil war in Afghanistan, the role and scope of the ECO had become very limited. After 1996, when Taliban took control of Kabul, Russia and Central Asian States held an emergency Summit of the Common Wealth of Independent States (CIS) in order to formulate a joint strategy. The Summit took place in Almaty and steps were taken to reinforce the defence of the CISs southern frontiers, especially in Tajikistan, and tighten security along the borders with Afghanistan.Actually Central Asian States concerns is the presence of a religious extremist force in Afghanistan which would destabilize the governments of the CAS which were facing numerous problems at home. In order to secure their borders, they supported Uzbek leader Dostum and Tajik leader Ahmed Shah Masood. Uzbekistan has ethnic connections with Uzbeks living in northern Afghanistan. Dostum receives fuel and other requirements from Uzbekistan (13). Morover, Uzbek government joined Kyrgzstan, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation in dispatching a 25,000-member peace keeping force to guard Tajikistans borders with Afghanistan. For Russia, which formulated collective security pact, its ulterior motive is to keep Islamic fundamentalism away from Central Asia, as it suits Russias Near Abroad Policy.
After Almatys meeting a joint communique declared: "The flame of war is approaching borders of the CIS states, and this creates a direct threat to the national interests and security of these states and of the CIS in general and destabilizes the regional and international situation. We declare that any activity, which undermines stability on the borders with Afghanistan, is unacceptable. Such activity, no matter who is responsible or it, will be regarded as a threat to common interest and [----] will meet with an appropriate response" (14).
When Taliban forces advanced North of HinduKush and claimed that they had taken Mazar-e-Sharif in May 1997, the leaders of Central Asia and Russia warned Taliban that a military response was not ruled out. For many observers, this was held to mean possible air strikes against Taliban held positions from air bases across the border in Central Asia (15). Moreover, Russia announced it would be prepared to take military action to protect the Southern borders of the CIS. A communique declared: The Russian leadership states that in the event of a violation of the CIS border, the mechanism of the treaty on the collective security of the CIS member states will immediately be brought into effect [---]. There is a threat to the security of the CIS countries, above all Uzbekistan and Tajikistan (16).
Except Turkmenistan, which enjoyed good relations with Taliban regime described the situation as stable, the other Central Asian States have strong reservations against Taliban. A special meeting on the Afghan crises was held in Moscow on 27 May 1997. Representatives of nine former Soviet republics, all significant to the CIS collective security treaty of 1992, attended including Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, but Turkmenistan again stayed away. However, the Chief of Russias Federal Border Service, Andrei Nikolayev, declared that "if the situation entails, a negative aftermath, more measures will be taken, not military, however, but political" (17). Meanwhile, Mullah Omar, the Chief of Taliban, sent a message to the participating governments in an attempt to reassure them that the military offensive in Afghanistan did not constitute any threat to the Central Asian States and they want friendly relations with regional states. Though the statement was an indication of normal situation, the regional governments were anxious over the possible take over the whole Afghanistan by Taliban forces
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Shanghai Five
On diplomatic front, the regional powers have established a group in order to reduce and resolve outstanding disputes to consolidate confidence building in the military sphere and to increase mutual trade and economic cooperation and to work jointly for a multipolar world order. It is a strategic arrangement formalized in Shanghai in April 1996. The members are China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The group holds annual summit, and the last one was held in Almaty in 2000 in which the task of countering the threat of religious extremism was added to its goal. They also agreed to form a joint anti-terrorist center to fight cross-border incursions by guerillas and drug traffickers. The five heads of states agreed to set up an anti-terrorist center in the Kyrghz capital of Bishkek to present armed incursion in Central Asia.
The Shanghai group was basically formed to resolve border issues but its focus has shifted towards religious extremism because their presence lent the group weight. As Uzbek president said, "The presence of the two powers is not only guarantee of security and peace but also a rebuff to the spread of terrorism" (18).The treaty was a continuation of the 1990 agreement formulated between the former Soviet Union and China on principles of mutual reduction of armed forces and confidence building in the border areas. The group since then become known as the Shanghai Five.
In broader perspective, the formation of this group has to be placed in the context of moves by the United States and its allies in Europe and the Far East to encircle Russia and China. In Europe, the US still perceives Russia as a potential adversary. While in the East, the US security perceptions in the Asia-Pacific region remained focussed on potential threat from China. Thus, Shanghai Five has been viewed to contain the US in these two regions (19).
Initially, the Shanghai Five has confined to security related issues, but later on, it has broadened the definition of security, by including religious and fundamentalist terrorism, arms and narco-terrorism. The group agreed to ban "the use of territories of their states for activities causing damage to the sovergnity security and the social order of the member states" (20). It is in the line of The Chinese concern regarding subversive activities of dissident elements in Xinjiang who have established basses in Central Asia. At the forth summit of the group in Bishikek in August, 1999, Chinese President Jiang Zemin called on the member states to continue their cooperation and "to guarantee regional security, crackdown on the forces of religious extremism and ethnic separatism as well as combating international terrorist activities" (21). At the last summit of Shanghai Five held in Dushanbe, the capital of Tajikistan on5-6, July 2000, the members have again showed a deep concern regarding terrorism. In a joint communique, the member states reiterated their resolve to jointly combat national separatism, International terrorism, and religious extremism. The forum expressed its resolve to sign necessary international accord to present trans-border activities.
The Afghan crisis has been of a particular concern to the Shanghai Five. Majority of the members directly blames Taliban regime for encouraging religious extremism within their territories. Presently, the leadership of the Central Asian States is very much secular in political terms. They do not want to see any extremist religious force on its borders.
The Central Asian States see Shanghai Five as a forum which provide a guarantee of peace and stability in the region in general and within the states in particular.
Six plus Two
The formation of Six plus Two is also a positive step in order to resolve the Afghan crisis. On 21st September 1998 a conference was held in New York, comprising all the regional parties China, Iran, Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan plus Russia and the US. They all agreed to "a political settlement culminating in the establishment of a broad based multi-ethnic representative government in Afghanistan" is the only possible solution of the crisis.
Theoretically, Six plus Two has presented a very well recommendation, but unfortunately the group locked in internal power politics. The member states have there own priorities and interests, thats why they have not taken any concrete step in order to resolve the crisis.
Conclusion
The Taliban factor accelerates the already fragile politics of Afghanistan, which is divided on political and ethnic lines. After a long period, the two non-Pashtun nationalities shared political and military power for a very short period, but orthodox Pashtun fundamentalist Taliban took control and presently it controls 90 per cent of Afghan territory. Taliban is a mixture of fundamentalist and totalitarian ideology and its basic aim is to establish a theoretic state by eliminating Opposition.
In the post-cold war era when the transformation of secular nationalism turns towards religious nationalism has taken place in developing world, Taliban has also showing religious nationalist feelings and take Afghanistan into its fold. Its ideologue JUI is a Pashtun dominated religious party and its reflection can be seen in the shape of Taliban. Moreover, after consolidating its power in Afghanistan, Taliban overwhelmingly supported other fundamentalist organizations of the Muslim world. They used Afghanistan as training ground and then fight in the other trouble spots of the region, for example, Bosnia, Chechenya, Tajikistan, Kashmir and parts of the Middle East. Furthermore, Taliban has provided shelter to Osama Bin Laden who is allegedly involved in cross border terrorism. Keeping all these developments in perspective, one can analyze that presently Afghanistan has become the hub of terrorist activities.
Both internationally and regionally, Taliban has been criticized. Except three states Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and UAE, non of the state has any diplomatic relations. In September 1999, the UN put sanctions on Afghanistan, which has further isolated it from the world community. Naturally, Central Asian States feel threaten which has a very strong impact on the region. They have collectively formed various groups in order to control cross border terrorism. Presently, on 7 December, 2000, the United States and Russia is preparing to move a resolution in the United Nations s Security Council asking to impose more sanctions against the Taliban including an Arms embargo and the other measures. The Russian ambassador to the UN along with the US ambassador jointly submitted a draft resolution to the Council aiming to force Taliban to stop supporting "terrorism". The Taliban regime is already under limited UN sanctions for refusing to extradite Bin Laden who is wanted in the US on multiple charges of alleged murder. The draft resolution directs the Taliban to close all the terrorist camps on its territory within thirty days and strict monitoring of such closures by the United Nations (22). Pakistan condemned the draft and said that the sanctions would undermine the United Nations efforts to bring peace in Afghanistan. Morover, Pakistan condemned the resolution on grounds that it is discriminatory in nature because it does not include Northern Alliance (23). On the contrary, the Russian Ambassador to the UN, Sergei Lavrov, responded: "The draft resolution is not about pushing any body for lack of interest in a peace process, its about the need for the Taliban to answer the previous demands of the Security Council". He further claimed that Taliban never fulfill any demand of the Security Council to stop supporting terrorism.
However, Taliban vowed that any tougher sanctions would not force it to change its policy of protecting Bin Laden. The fact of the matter is that Afghanistan is a multi-ethic state, comprising Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks. All these nationalities get support from there regional allies. Taliban get support from Pakistan because the majority of Pashtuns is living in Pakistan province known as NWFP. As far as Uzbeks and Tajiks are concerned, they have their natural allies in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan respectively. Presently, non-Pashtuns have been ousted from Kabul and Mazar-e-Sharif in the north of Afghanistan, which is very close to the Central Asian States. Today, they have been ousted from Mazar-e-Sharif. This means that the power base of non-Pashtun elements has been shrinking which is very disastrous for the whole region.
The struggle for power in Afghanistan has far-reaching implications for Central Asian region. If Afghan conflict would not be solved peacefully it will harm the stability of the region. The crux of the solution lies in the hands of international and regional power centers. Afghanistan is promoting narco-terrorism, cross-border terrorism, religious and nationalist fundamentalism. The need of the hour is to put pressure on Taliban regime to pave the way for a logical solution of the crisis that is to preserve the national identity of Afghan society, which is pluralistic and multi-ethic in nature. Broad-based government in Afghanistan is the only alternative for prosperous future of Afghanistan in particular and region in general. The physical division of Afghanistan will further pave the way for anarchy and chaos, which further destabilize the region, and has a far-reaching implication for Central Asian States. Shanghai Five and Six plus Two groups are in a better position to resolve the crisis in a peaceful manner. The statesmanship is required for this action.
NOTES
[1] lliam Maley (ed). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and Taliban. Islamabad: Vanguard Book, 1998, p.4.
[2] Current History. Philadelphia, April 1994, p.153.
[3] William Maley, op.cit. , p.1.
[4] Mutahir Ahmed. Afghanistan and Tadijikistan : Destabilizing factors for South and Central Asian regions. Perceptions. Ankara, March-May, 1998, Vol.3,No.1, p.137.
[5] Hannah Arendt. The origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanorich 1973, p.457.
[6] William Maley, op.cit.,p.22.
[7] Ahmed Rashids Article in William Maley(ed). Fundamantalism Reborn? Afghanistan and Taliban, pp .75-76.
[8] Pattern of Global Terrorism. 1997, US Department of State, April 1998, p.2.
[9] Ibidem.
[10] Fact Sheet, the charges against International Terrorists Usama Bin Laden, issued by http:Usemberassy.
State . gov /Afghanistan wwhoo/html.
[11] Ibidem.
[12] Kathy Gannon. Bin Laden call on young people to join war against US. - US Today (N.Y.), 4 August, 2000.
[13] Dawn. Karachi, 1996, 16 October.
[14] Inside Central Asia. 1996, . 141.
[15] Anthony Hyman s article in William Maley (ed). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban , p.110.
[16] BBC Summary of World Broadcast. SU/2928/B/8,26 May1997.
[17] Anthony Hyman, op.cit., p.113.
[18] Dawn. 2000, 6 July.
[19] Maqbool Ahmed Bhatti. Role of Shanghai Five. - Dawn, 2000, 16 July.
[20] Ibidem.
[21] Ibidem.
[22] Dawn. 2000, 22 December.
[23] BBCommentry, 2000, 8 December.
Copyright 2002 Center for Regional and Transboundary Studies at Volgograd State University
Copyright 2002 Mutahir Ahmed
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